In her obituary[1] in the Bulletin of the British Psycho-Analytic Society Grace Pailthorpe was described as being a ‘pioneer in every sphere in which she moved’ and ‘too great an individualist to have ever been completely orthodox in her views’. Both are true and to some degree understatements. Grace Pailthorpe had many lives. She was a surgeon during the First World War, a psychoanalyst who studied under Ernest Jones, a criminologist, a campaigner for reform, founder of the Institute for the Study and Treatment of Delinquency (the clinical wing of which became the Portman Clinic) and a surrealist artist, praised by Andre Breton and now included in the collection at Tate Modern.
Curucuchoo by Grace Pailthorpe
Grace Winifred Pailthorpe (1883-1971) was born on 29 July 1883 in Sutton, Surrey[2],[3],[4]. She was the daughter of Edward Wright Pailthorpe (1854-1904) and Anne Lavinia Pailthorpe (née Green, 1853-1918) [5],[6]. Her father was a prominent stockbroker[7] and her mother was a seamstress[8]. Grace was the third child of ten and the only daughter[9],[10].
Grace Pailthorpe and family 1890
Both of her parents belonged to the Plymouth Brethren[11],[12], a conservative, evangelical Christian movement that had developed in Ireland in the 1820s. They are a fundamentalist group that emphasise the word of the bible as the sole, infallible authority for faith and practice. In her autobiographical notes Grace Pailthorpe described how her parents’ religion forbade them from giving her the love she craved[13].
Grace Pailthorpe and family mid 1890s
Grace was brought up in what she described as ‘an atmosphere of strictest Puritanism’[14], where she developed an ‘acute consciousness of… always hanging by a thread over the Bottomless Pit, with God’s Hand with a sword in it always poised ready to sever the thread’[15]. This, she says, caused her the ‘acutest misery’ of her childhood years[16] and in her unpublished autobiographical notes she often described the nightmares her childhood gave her.
Within the Plymouth Brethren there is a doctrine of exclusive fellowship where activities such as dining out, business partnerships and membership of clubs are only done with other ‘fellow’ members. Because of this Grace Pailthorpe and her brothers were educated at the family home In Redhill, Surrey to prevent them being indoctrinated by the outside world[17]. This separatist religious focus provoked rebellion in the children, as Grace Pailthorpe put it, ‘we liked to play instead of pray, we liked to make a noise when we should engage in silent worship, we liked all the things of this world, when it is expressly forbidden so to do’[18].
Grace Pailthorpe with her eldest brother Edward
This theme was further picked up in her literary experiment Curucuchoo: The Autobiography of Child at Three[19] where biblical stories are criticised for inciting fear and dread in the child who believes her mistakes will be severely punished[20]. Later still she would describe the ‘emotional compression’ that she felt in the Plymouth Brethren as ‘a repetition of the compression and consequent suffocation of child birth’[21].
Grace had a difficult relationship with her mother who blamed her for kicking in the womb and kicking against Brethren rules[22]. In her autobiographical notes Grace Pailthorpe said, ‘nothing I did might make my M[other] love me. Realization, that although I was apparently ‘growed up’ the same as the boys, my M[other]’s love was for them not me. Somehow I had sinned in being a girl.’[23] This difficult relationship is neatly summarised in the title of an autobiographical memoir Grace Pailthorpe wrote in Spain in 1931 titled Strangled at Birth[24].
Similarly with her father Grace Pailthorpe described how she dreaded his ‘thrashings’ when she broke the rules, but also sought them to obtain the ‘bliss’ of being comforted afterwards[25]. In spite of these thrashings her relationship with her father was somewhat better than that with her mother, and letters between her and her father, while he was in a nursing home, show some bond between them[26]. Grace’s father Edward Pailthorpe died on 28 June 1904[27]. After her father’s death the family moved to Southport in Lancashire[28].
Among her siblings Grace appears to have had a close relationship with her brother Alexander Pailthorpe, known as Frank, who was just a year younger than her.
In 1908 Grace Pailthorpe enrolled at the Royal College of Music in London[29] and began studying to be a concert pianist. Then in September of 1908 she applied to study medicine at the London (Royal Free Hospital) School of Medicine for Women[30].
Grace Pailthorpe’s application to the London (Royal Free)
Her decision to become a doctor may have been influenced by her paternal aunt Mary Elizabeth Pailthorpe (1858-1912), who had also studied at the London School of Medicine for Women in the 1880s, winning prizes in physiology and anatomy, becoming a medical missionary in 1886[31] at a time when there were very few women doctors.
Mary Elizabeth Pailthorpe
In fact even in Grace Pailthorpe’s time, with the suffragettes being established in 1903 and women getting the vote in 1918, there were very few women who studied medicine. When Grace Pailthorpe joined the London (Royal Free Hospital) School of Medicine for Women in the winter term of 1908-09 there were just twenty-two other students[32] and when she qualified in 1914 of the 66 graduates in all medical degrees (MD, MS, MB/BS, DPH, LDS) that year, she was one of only four females[33].
Grace Pailthorpe and family on holiday in Scotland 1910
Grace Pailthorpe matriculated or enrolled as a student at the University of Durham’s College of Medicine in Newcastle in Michaelmas term in 1912 and was there for two years. At that time, regulations for the MB and BS degree stipulated that candidates had to have been in medical study for five years, but that only one of those years needed to be spent in Newcastle.
Shortly after the outbreak of World War 1 in 1914 Grace Pailthorpe decided to volunteer, perhaps following the example of her brother Frank who returned to England from Canada to join up in 1914. Grace Pailthorpe went to the War Office in London and filled out her application, but was rejected on grounds of her sex[34].
In her journal she wrote: ‘Leaving the War Office, sadly, once more with the brutal way in which one’s sex was utilised by the ruling sex to domineer. I made my way to every hospital unit that I heard about asking to be allowed to ‘join up’. One after the other told me either that they weren’t taking women or, in the case of women’s hospitals that they already had a long list and they would add my name.’[35]
During her visit to London in August 1914, Grace Pailthorpe also sat for her final exam in medicine and surgery, but failed the oral section of surgery[36]. On her return to Newcastle she and some other students asked if they could re-sit the exam earlier than usual, given the pressing need for qualified doctors during wartime[37]. Their proposal was accepted and they sat their final exams three months later at the end of 1914.
Grace Pailthorpe qualified as MB BS (Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery) at the University of Durham, Royal Victoria Infirmary, Newcastle 0n 21 December 1914 at the age of 31[38],[39].
Grace Pailthorpe in the French Red Cross
After being rebuffed at the War Office and after finishing her degree Grace Pailthorpe volunteered with the French Red Cross. In January 1915, at the start of her military service, she worked as a surgeon with the Bromley-Martin Hospital Unit in the Haute-Marne District in France. This hospital had been set up by Madeline Bromley-Martin in a chateau in the village of Haute-Marne 60 miles behind the lines[40]. It was staffed by men and women who had been deemed unsuitable for military service and consisted of three artists, a poet, an architect and a historian among others[41]. These included future poet Laureate John Masefield, impressionist artist, Wilfred de Glehn, poet Laurene Binyon, opera singer Susan Strong, the architect RC Phillimore and Madeline Bromley-Martin who had studied piano under Elgar [42]. The chief surgeon was Dr Graham Aspland and the anaesthetist was Henry Tonks, the painter and Slade Art School Professor[43]. In January 1915 the hospital had a staff of 60 with 110 beds to serve the wounded from the French 3rd Army Corps[44]. Grace Pailthorpe was in charge of several wards and acted as a personal assistant to Dr. Aspland[45].
It is likely that it would have been at Bromley-Martin Hospital Unit that Grace Pailthorpe would have first come into contact with victims of shell-shock. In fact ‘shell-shock’ as a term didn’t exist until February 1915, when Dr Charles Myers coined it in a paper in The Lancet[46]. British doctors were initially confounded by the condition and sought biological explanations such as micro damage to the nerves from the concussion of shells. But with so many men had becoming paralysed under shell-fire or reduced to a state of collapse by exhaustion it was a problem that the army couldn’t ignore. Its usual procedure of administering a ‘brisk laxative’[47] and sending the soldier back to the front wasn’t cutting it.
Charles Myers was a distinguished Cambridge academic who had studied with Charles Rivers and William McDougall and together they had run the tiny Cambridge University psychology department[48]. In France, he sought out Dejerine at Salpêtrière where he found many interesting cases of soldiers struck dumb[49], then at le Touquet he found his own examples of ‘shell-shock’ and wrote a paper for The Lancet[50].
His findings were not greeted with universal acceptance in the army where men were either well, sick, wounded, mad or a coward to be shot[51].
Psychoanalysis was still a very new subject and before World War 1 the French were the world leaders. In the mid-nineteenth century Jean-Martin Charcot in Paris had established a famous neurology clinic at Salpêtrière Hospital and was one of the first doctors to take hysteria seriously[52]. His students: Joseph Babinski, Jules Dejerine, Pierre Janet and Sigmund Freud were the ones who developed the new discipline of psychoanalysis.
At the start of World War 1 the scientific status of psychoanalysis was viewed with suspicion in Britain[53]. Although Ernest Jones had established the London Psycho-Analytic Society at the end of 1913, it was founded with nine members[54] (including: Ernest Jones, William Mackenzie, Maurice Nicoll and David Eder). That only grew to fifteen in the first year and of those only four were practising analysts[55].
It is possible that Grace Pailthorpe, as a fluent speaker of French, might have come across French works on psychoanalysis at that time. Certainly her work after the war indicated that she was familiar with works such as Janet’s The Major Symptoms of Hysteria[56].
While in France Grace Pailthorpe corresponded by letter with her brother ‘Frank’, who was serving with the 16th Battalion of the Canadian Infantry (Manitoba Regiment). He called her ‘my dear sis’ and spoke about their relationship with their mother, who he called ‘very heard hearted’ for not wanting to see him before he went to the front[57]. The letters show them to be close. He died in action on 27 August 1915 and was buried at La Plus Douve Farm Military Cemetery in Belgium[58]. Grace Pailthorpe was listed as his next of kin.
The grave of ‘Frank’ Pailthorpe
After serving in France in 1915 Grace Pailthorpe returned to England to work as a House Surgeon at the Royal Southern Hospital in Liverpool[59].
Then, between August and October 1916[60] Grace Pailthorpe as posted to Salonika, where she worked as a surgeon in the Scottish Women’s Hospital, Salonika in the Royal Army Medical Corps of the British Committee of the French Red Cross[61]. This hospital was a 200 bed, tented mobile unit that had previously been based at the grounds of Chateau de Chanteloup, near Troyes in the Champagne region of France, but relocated to Greece when a division of the French Army was sent there to support the Serbs. It initially set up in a silkworm factory in the border town of Gevgelia, but in December of 1915 was moved to the city of Salonika[62], opening on 1 January 1916[63]. In August 1916 it was joined there by the Ostrovo Unit or the American Unit.
Grace Pailthorpe at the front line
In Salonika the unit carried out 2,733 surgical operations, 1344 of which were under general anaesthetic[64], though only 14 cases of shell-shock were reported by the hospital[65]. It also treated 3,764 medical cases, 1,714 of which had malaria[66]. Dysentry and malaria were particular problems during the summer of 1916. Staff were also affected and the deaths of two nursing sisters in August 1916 had a devastating impact on morale[67]. By the autumn of 1916 an advance in the fighting front took place[68] and the hospital began to fill with patients suffering from complex wounds, often multiple and contaminated, as a result of high explosive shells[69]. It was probably here that Grace Pailthorpe served as a medical officer in charge of a flying ambulance unit in the Balkans[70], though the flying ambulances or ‘ambulances volantes’ of the French Army were actually a system of horse drawn traps.
Towards the end of 1916 Grace Pailthorpe spent time in Malta, before travelling to Italy on 13 December[71]. Earlier that year during the Gallipoli Campaign, Malta had become a major hospital centre where more than 136,000 men were sent for care.
The maverick English Freudian David Eder (one of the founding members of the London Psycho-Analytic Society) was based at a hospital there, where he was medical officer in charge of the psycho-neurological department in Malta. It was David Eder who had given the first psychoanalytic paper ever to the British Medical Association in 1911[72]. It is said that the entire medical audience silently walked out of this talk on sexual aetiology. Earlier in 1916 David Eder had published ‘The Psychology of the War Neurosis’, an account of his work with soldiers from Gallipoli[73]. In this he became the first person to adapt Freudian ideas to war, suggesting neurosis was produced by the mental conflict between a sense of duty and the unconscious wish to survive[74]. In 1917 he wrote these experiences up as the book War Shock[75]. It is possible that Grace Pailthorpe and David Eder had contact in Malta, certainly he was later to be a founder member, with Grace Pailthorpe, of the Association for the Scientific Treatment of Criminals[76].
During World War 1 Freud’s ideas were gradually taken up, tested and adapted by a group that came to be known as the British or ‘integral’ group, which included William Rivers, William McDougall, William Brown, Hugh Crichton-Miller, Millais Culpin and J. A. Hadfield, among others. Of these it was William Rivers who became most famous, for his work at Craiglockhardt with Siegfried Sassoon. While taking up Freud’s notion of an underlying conflict William Rivers challenged Freud’s notion that neurosis was produced exclusively by sexual factors[77]. In fact after the war Freud revised his theory in ‘Beyond the Pleasure Principle’ (1920) to take account of how dreams could be the result of a need to unconsciously work through or process trauma.
In 1917 Grace Pailthorpe transferred from the French to the British Red Cross and was posted to the Military Hospital, Paris[78]. By co-incidence it was in the Military Hospital of Val-de-Grâce that Andre Breton and Louis Aragorn first met in September of 1917[79].
The Amiens Club in 1917
In October 1917 Grace Pailthorpe set up the ‘Amiens Club’ as a ‘Home from Home’ for soldiers on their way to the front[80]. It was perhaps at the Amiens Club that she first experimented with art therapy as part of the treatment of her patients or it might have been earlier under the influence of the artists at the Bromley-Martin Hospital[81].
It was while working as a doctor and caring for the victims of war that Grace Pailthorpe became interested in psychological medicine. Her journals show that treating patients encouraged her to investigate the unconscious[82], realising ‘how intense a patients’ thoughts become’[83].
Grace Pailthorpe returned to Britain in 1917, first to the South Eastern Fever Hospital[84] in New Cross, London, then becoming District Medical Officer at Queen Charlotte’s Hospital in London[85]. She remained in London until the end of the war and in 1918 was House Physician at the Charing Cross Hospital[86], an Assistant Medical Officer at Whipps Cross War Hospital and finally House Physician at London Hospital[87].
Marne casualties at Charing Cross Hospital (Image: Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust)
Towards the end of the war, on 10 October 1918 Grace’s mother, Anne Pailthorpe, died. Her mother’s death once again underscored their poor relationship, with Grace Pailthorpe being excluded from any inheritance money by her mother, who left everything to her sons[88]. In her autobiographical notes Grace Pailthorpe later said how bitter this made her feel[89].
After the war Grace Pailthorpe travelled extensively abroad[90], taking the SS Mantua to Australia to visit her brother Douglas[91]. She embarked on 11 December 1918 and travelled via Gibraltar, Egypt, Yemen, India and Sri Lanka arriving in Freemantle, Western Australia on 10 February 1919[92].
Between 1919 and 1921, Pailthorpe worked as a general practitioner in both Australia and New Zealand, including working as a Medical Officer at Youanmi Hospital in Western Australia[93]. She also worked as a medical officer at a gold-mining company[94].
Grace Pailthorpe’s return journey was no less scenic than her journey to Australia, visiting Hawaii, Vancouver and New York, before taking the SS Aquitania back to Southampton, where she arrived on 15 February 1922[95].
[1] Helen Sheehan-Dare, ‘Dr Grace W. Pailthorpe’, Bulletin of the British Psychoanalytical Society, October 1971
[2] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[3] Grace Pailthorpe’s application for admission to the London (Royal Free Hospital) School of Medicine for Women, dated 29 September 1908
[4] https://www.psychoanalytikerinnen.de/greatbritain_biographies.html#Pailthorpe, downloaded 3 June 2019
[5] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[6] Catherine Milner (24 January 1998) ‘The eeriest couple in art’, The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 6 June 2018
[7] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[8] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p8, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[9] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[10] Catherine Milner (24 January 1998) ‘The eeriest couple in art’, The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 6 June 2018
[11] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[12] Catherine Milner (24 January 1998) ‘The eeriest couple in art’, The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 6 June 2018
[13] Hope Wolf, A Tale of Mother’s Bones, p30, Camden Arts Centre, 2019
[14] Autobiographical notes by Pailthorpe, dated 1925. Edinburgh: Dean Gallery Archives (File 152 ‘GWP beginning of autobiography commenced in 1925’): 1
[15] Autobiographical notes by Pailthorpe, dated 1925. Edinburgh: Dean Gallery Archives (File 152 ‘GWP beginning of autobiography commenced in 1925’): 1
[16] Autobiographical notes by Pailthorpe, dated 1925. Edinburgh: Dean Gallery Archives (File 152 ‘GWP beginning of autobiography commenced in 1925’): 1
[17] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p8, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[18] Autobiographical notes by Pailthorpe, dated 1925. Edinburgh: Dean Gallery Archives (File 152 ‘GWP beginning of autobiography commenced in 1925’): 9
[19] Grace Pailtorpe, Curucuchoo: The Autobiography of Child at Three, 1937, GMA
[20] Hope Wolf, A Tale of Mother’s Bones, p30, Camden Arts Centre, 2019
[21] Grace Pailthorpe, ‘Lecture on Drawings’, No 1, p12
[22] Hope Wolf, A Tale of Mother’s Bones, p30, Camden Arts Centre, 2019
[23] Autobiographical notes by Pailthorpe, dated 1925. Edinburgh: Dean Gallery Archives (File 152 ‘GWP beginning of autobiography commenced in 1925’): 1
[24] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p31, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[25] Hope Wolf, A Tale of Mother’s Bones, p30, Camden Arts Centre, 2019
[26] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p10, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[27] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[28] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p10, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[29] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[30] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, figure 6, Appendix p8, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[31] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, figure 5, Appendix p7, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[32] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p12, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[33] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p13, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[34] Diary notes by Pailthorpe on ‘the war period’, dated 04.08.14. Edinburgh: Dean Gallery Archives (File 25 ‘Wartime file titled: ‘Doc in First World War 1914-1918’’), 1
[35] Diary notes by Pailthorpe on ‘the war period’, dated 04.08.14. Edinburgh: Dean Gallery Archives (File 25 ‘Wartime file titled: ‘Doc in First World War 1914-1918’’), 1
[36] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p14, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[37] Diary notes by Pailthorpe on ‘the war period’, dated 04.08.14. Edinburgh: Dean Gallery Archives (File 25 ‘Wartime file titled: ‘Doc in First World War 1914-1918’’), 1
[38] Certificate of Pailthorpe’s medical degree, dated December 1914. Durham: University of Durham Archive
[39] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[40] M. Gladstone, ‘Converting a royal residence into a functional hospital presented a challenge’, The Courier and Advertise (Perth and Perthshire Edition),6 June 2017
[41] Diary notes by Pailthorpe, dated January 1915. Edinburgh: Dean Gallery Archives (File 25 ‘Wartime file titled: ‘Doc in First World War 1914-1918’)
[42] M. Gladstone, ‘Converting a royal residence into a functional hospital presented a challenge’, The Courier and Advertise (Perth and Perthshire Edition),6 June 2017
[43] M. Gladstone, ‘Converting a royal residence into a functional hospital presented a challenge’, The Courier and Advertise (Perth and Perthshire Edition),6 June 2017
[44] M. Gladstone, ‘Converting a royal residence into a functional hospital presented a challenge’, The Courier and Advertise (Perth and Perthshire Edition),6 June 2017
[45] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p14, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[46] C. Myers, ‘Contribution to the Study of Shell Shock’, The Lancet, Volume 185, Issue 4772, p316-330, 13 Feb 1915
[47] B. Shephard, War of Nerves, p26, Jonathan Cape, 2000
[48] B. Shephard, War of Nerves, p22, Jonathan Cape, 2000
[49] B. Shephard, War of Nerves, p22, Jonathan Cape, 2000
[50] B. Shephard, War of Nerves, p1, Jonathan Cape, 2000
[51] B. Shephard, War of Nerves, p25, Jonathan Cape, 2000
[52] B. Shephard, War of Nerves, p9, Jonathan Cape, 2000
[53] J. Bourke, ‘Psychology at War, 1914-1945’, in G Bunn, GD Richards, and AD Lovie, Psychology in Britain: Historical Essays and Personal Reflections, p133, BPS Books, 2001
[54] R.A. Paskauskas, The Complete Correspondence of Sigmund Freud and Ernest
Jones 1908-1939, p233, Harvard University Press, 1993
[55] K. Robinson, ‘A brief history of the British Psychoanalytical Society’, in P. Lowenberg and N. Thompson, 100 Years of the IPA, p197, Karnac, 2012
[56] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p80, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[57] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p11, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[58] https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/12685424/alexander-frank-pailthorpe
[59] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[60] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p15, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[61] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[62] E. Morrison, C Parry, ‘The Scottish Women’s Hospitals for Foreign Service – the Girton and Newnham Unit, 1915–1918’, The Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, p339, 44, 2014
[63] F. Ivens, ‘The part played by British medical women in the war’, British Medical Journal, 1917; 2: 203–8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2355312/pdf/brmedj07114-0001.pdf
[64] E.S. McLaren, A History of the Scottish Women’s Hospitals, p. 384–92, Hodder and Stoughton, 1919
[65] E. Morrison, C Parry, ‘The Scottish Women’s Hospitals for Foreign Service – the Girton and Newnham Unit, 1915–1918’, The Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, p340, 44, 2014
[66] E.S. McLaren, A History of the Scottish Women’s Hospitals, p. 384–92, Hodder and Stoughton, 1919
[67] E. Morrison, C Parry, ‘The Scottish Women’s Hospitals for Foreign Service – the Girton and Newnham Unit, 1915–1918’, The Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, p340, 44, 2014
[68] F. Ivens, ‘The part played by British medical women in the war’, British Medical Journal, 1917; 2: 203–8. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2355312/pdf/brmedj07114-0001.pdf
[69] E. Morrison, C Parry, ‘The Scottish Women’s Hospitals for Foreign Service – the Girton and Newnham Unit, 1915–1918’, The Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, p339, 44, 2014
[70] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p15, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[71] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p16, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[72] https://psychoanalysis.org.uk/node#0, downloaded 5 June 2019
[73] D. Eder, ‘The Psychology of the War Neurosis’, The Lancet, volume 188, issue 4850, p264-268, 12 August 1916
[74] B. Shephard, War of Nerves, p86, Jonathan Cape, 2000
[75] M.D. Eder, War-Shock: The Psycho-Neuroses in War Psychology and Treatment, William Heinemann, 1917
[76] Eve Saville, Let Justice Be Done, p125, ISTD, 1992
[77] W.H.R. Rivers, ‘Freud’s Psychology of the Unconscious’, in Instinct and Unconscious, Cambridge 1922
[78] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[79] Amy Lyford, ‘The Aesthetics of Dismemberment: Surrealism and the Musée du Val-de-Grâce in 1917’, in Cultural Critique, No. 46, Trauma and Its Cultural Aftereffects, Autumn, 2000, p45-79
[80] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p15, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[81] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p14, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[82] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p16, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[83] Diary notes by Grace Pailthorpe, dated 1917. Edinburgh: Dean Gallery Archives (File 25 ‘Wartime file titled: ‘Doc in First World War 1914-1918’’): 25
[84] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[85] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[86] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[87] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[88] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p16, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[89] Autobiographical notes by Pailthorpe, dated 1924. Edinburgh: Dean Gallery Archives (File 81 ‘Autobiographical Notes by Grace Pailthorpe’): 5
[90] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[91] Grace Pailthorpe, ‘Truants’ unpublished journal dated 1920-22. Edinburgh: Dean Gallery Archives (File 46 ‘Truants by G.W. Pailthorpe’): 1
[92] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p17, The University of Edinburgh, 2010
[93] Nigel Walsh (Editor), Andrew Wilson (Editor), Sluice Gates of the Mind: The Collaborative Work of Pailthorpe and Mednikoff, p82, Leeds Museums & Galleries, 1998
[94] Helen Sheehan-Dare, ‘Dr Grace W. Pailthorpe’, Bulletin of the British Psychoanalytical Society, October 1971
[95] Lee Ann Montanaro, Surrealism and Psychoanalysis in the work of Grace Pailthorpe and Reuben Mednikoff: 1935-1940, p20, The University of Edinburgh, 2010